• Indicator 2: Most Significant Energy-Related Local Pollutant

• Vector Value calculations and values
• Discussion and notes to SEW or next year's Observer-Reporter

As in all countries, energy production and consumption in South Africa has a wide range of local environmental impacts - from air quality and water use, to degradation of land, water and forest resources. Unlike many Northern countries, however, some of the most critical problems occur at the household level - from the consumption of fuels for cooking, heating and lighting - rather than mainly from large-scale industrial use. Similar to many developing countries, exposure to hazardous levels of indoor air pollution outstrips outdoor air pollution as a potential cause of illness and even death (Reddy et al. 1997; Holdren & Smith 2000) Studies on the environmental impacts of energy use, including the only study on economic valuation of these impacts, places particulate emissions at the top of the list of environmental hazards, with other indoor and local (ie ground level) pollutants close behind (Van Horen 1996a, 1996b) (Freeman & Naude 1999; Lloyd et al. 1999). It is important to remember, however, that the household hazards of energy extend even beyond pollutants, to include the high risk of fires, burns and even poisoning from paraffin stove use and candle-burning in informal dwellings (Van Horen 1996b; Mehlwana 1999a, 1999b).

For the reasons above, we choose to use a measure of air quality in low-income areas as a key indicator of energy sector environmental impacts. The Soweto Air Monitoring (SAM) Project was initiated in 1991, and has tracked ambient concentrations of particulate matter in Soweto since that time (Annergarn & Sithole 1999). Results up to 1999 show that winter concentrations of total particulate matter have declined by about 15%.

For this indicator, the value for 1 on the vector is the 1990 level of pollution - or in this case, we use 1992 because this is the earliest year for the data. The 1992 measurements showed an ambient concentration of particulate matter of 180 micrograms per cubic metre. The value for 0 on the vector set at 10% of the base 1992 value, so 18 micro g/m3 for this particular pollutant measurement. The 1999 vector value is therefore 0.85.

Metric (actual data) for 1992: 180  micro g/m3 and 1999 150 micro micro g/m3?

Vector values for 1992: 1.00 and 1999 0.85

Discussion

For the Soweto data, it is not possible to attribute all of this change to changing energy use patterns - namely electrification and the decline household use of coal. Some of this particulate matter also comes from the burning of refuse (Annergarn & Sithole 1999), although smoke from coal is one of the largest contributors.

Ideally, we should report average air quality over a large number of areas - particularly low-income areas that are most affected by local air pollution. This is superior to reporting only air emissions, because emissions do not directly translate into air quality. A good example is that coal burnt in one of Eskom's power stations, with stacks more than 250 metres high, clearly does not affect health in the way that coal burnt in a brazier inside a shack does.

The problem here is the lack of a national air quality monitoring system - for either emissions or ambient air quality. While DEAT collects information on major pollutant emissions from large stationary sources, this data is all self reported and not validated by government (Spalding-Fecher et al. 1999). The data also tends to be fairly out of date (eg the most recent national inventory is for 1993). Eskom probably has the most extensive air quality monitoring network in the country, although the sites are chosen to assess the impact of emissions from power stations (with generally high stacks) rather than other industry or pollutants from household energy use. If government is to implement the far-reaching National Environmental Management Act passed in 1998, therefore, significant improvements in data collection and monitoring of air quality will be essential. Otherwise, it will not be possible to track progress against any national or local goals.

Notes to SEW or next year's Observer-Reporter:

The Soweto air quality monitoring team should be consulted to see if this data has been updated. The possibility of tracking national emissions of particulates through the DEAT database should be explored, and the limitations of this data analysed more closely. Also, Eskom should be approach to discuss how their air quality data might be useful for this indicator.

The National State of the Environment Report should also be consulted, to assess other possible indicators of environmental quality and trends.